编者按：对于建国至改革开放这一段的美术，当代人大多持以不屑的态度，觉得这些作品无非是革命化的标签，因此在研究上也就没有引起足够的重视。然而如果我们超越出审美品评的眼光，对于这段历史能有一个更严肃、更深入的回望，那么这无疑将会加深我们对于当代艺术文化转型的认识。安雅兰的这本书，是西方学者研究共和国前30年绘画与政治关系的一部力作，通过对它的评论，笔者一方面想介绍这本著作的写作背景和取得的阶段性成果，另一方面更想借着这一话题，进一步探讨我们看待历史问题的一种新的可能。此外，本文结尾附有中外学者研究近百年中国绘画史的著作目录，有兴趣的朋友可以参看。
　　　　　　　　
　　　　　　　　　 　

　　《中华人民共和国的绘画与政治》（ Painting and Politics in The People’s Republic of China ）是美国学者安雅兰（Julia F. Andrews）女士走向中国现当代美术史研究的第一本着作，它主要探讨了1949至1979这30年间（一个相当特殊的历史时期）共和国美术与政治的关系。在以下关于这本书的简要评论中，我想把问题集中于三方面：作者为什么写这本书；作者怎么写这本书及其取得的效果；这本书存在的问题，并希望借助对本书的讨论尝试阐明在传统美术史研究中引入一些新视角的必要。

　　安雅兰女士于1973年在布朗大学获学士学位，1976年在哈佛大学获硕士学位，1984年在加利弗尼亚大学获博士学位，主攻中国艺术史。现任俄亥俄州大学艺术史教授，并兼该校东亚研究中心中国研究所副主任，主要从事中国与日本的近现代美术史研究。 《中华人民共和国的绘画与政治》是她公开发表的第一本着作，并获得了当年(1994)由“亚洲研究联合会”（AAS）颁发的“李文森奖”（The Joseph Levenson Prize） 。这项始设于1987年的奖金是为了奖励那些“通过相当精深或具突破性的研究，增进了人们对于中国各时期历史、文化、社会、经济、政治等领域相关了解的学术性书籍。”那么，这本书究竟做了哪些精深的研究，取得了哪些突破性的进展，增进了人们对于中国世界的哪些知识呢？还是先让我们从作者写作本书的目的谈起。

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　　作者在序言中写到，当改革开放初期她和其他许多对中国古代山水画着迷的西方人一样云集北京来寻找中国伟大艺术的继承者时，结果却发现此时的中国艺术已远不同于传统的中国艺术，也决然不同于当代的西方艺术，还不同于当代华人地区，如台湾、香港、新加坡等地的艺术。这一切促使作者思考1949至1979的中国绘画界究竟发生了什么，以使得它在70年代末与外界产生了如此巨大的文化鸿沟。要想更准确地把握作者的这一写作动机，我们就不得不先对作者写作本书时的社会背景和学术背景有一个全面的认识。

　　建国后一直僵持不下的中美关系由于1951年朝鲜战争的爆发而彻底决裂，直到1979年1月1日卡特政府与中国签署《中美建交联合公报》，近30年的时间里，尽管后期从高级领导层出现了开始松动的迹象，总体而言，中美之间，或者说中国与大部分西方世界之间，被一层坚厚的铁幕阻隔着。在这段特殊的历史时期内，西方世界可以通过流通于香港的《人民日报》等新闻媒体及时获悉中国大陆的政治举措，然而除此之外的事情却知之甚少，尤其就学术范围而言，改革开放之前，中国对西方世界是完全封锁的。美国研究中国史的专家柯文（Paul A. Cohen）先生就曾感慨：“1977年春我首次访问中国时，还没有一位中国史家在美国从事研究，也没有任何美国史家在中国进行研究。我们彼此不读对方的著作，甚至也不了解姓名和工作机构。” 这种情况在70年代末开始有所改观，改革开放的政策实行以后，大批国外学者有机会亲自来到中国大陆搜集材料并从事研究，安雅兰既是其中之一。正是在相互接触的过程中，一些意想不到的新问题出现了，从而也促进了画史研究领域的不断拓展。

　　70年代中期以后，即有不少海外学者转向对于近百年中国画史的研究，并取得了丰硕的成果。 但比之于传统画像砖石、古代书画史的研究规模及深入程度仍然相差悬殊。尤其20世纪后半期的画史情况由于受到资料等各方面因素的限制，在安雅兰着手本书之前，尽管已取得了一些进展，但总体而言，可供参考的海外研究共和国绘画史的专着仍是寥寥无几 ，而且即使已有著作在许多细节方面也是不尽充分的。由此我们可知，80年代的时候西方美术史界对于中华人民共和国成立到改革开放之前这段历史的研究尚有空缺，而且首缺的是系统而详实的一手材料，这些材料必须丰富得足以揭去那层蒙蔽了中国近30年的面纱，以明白地向西方人表明在这段时间里中国美术界究竟发生了什么。理清这一层头绪再来看安雅兰的这本书，再对照她自己在序言中提到的研究目的，我们就可以有一个比较清楚的出发点了。

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　　那么作者具体又做了哪些努力来达到她的目的呢？首先从材料搜集方面说，安雅兰尽可能地利用了中国大陆的各种出版物和中外收藏中可以见到的艺术作品，而且更为难能可贵的是她还于1986——1990年之间对当时的艺术家和重要官员进行了大量的口述采访，尽管安雅兰同样也认识到这种做法存在一些无可避免的弊端 ，但只要联系前面分析的她最初着手研究的动机，我们就不难感觉到她是在尽一切努力使自己的描述符合历史本来的样子。从写作方法上说，在这本书中我们也很难找到因意识形态差别而造成的主观臆断，作者非常忠实于“原点实证”的原则，尽量客观地表述自己对事情的分析和看法，我们要始终记得她希望传达给读者的资讯是：“这里究竟发生了些什么？”。

　　本书要讨论的主题是中国绘画在中国共产党的领导下发生了哪些新的变化以及如何变化。作者认为新中国艺术的最大变化在于以油画和水彩为主的现实主义绘画的兴起和传统笔墨韵味的丧失领地，而导致这一变化最主要的原因在于新的政党机制与教学体系的确立。因此在全书对1949至1979中国“艺术世界”的考察中，作者把主要精力放在了官方行政机构一面。在上述考察官方艺术机构建立与生成的过程中，作者还同时考察了这一时期内三代职业艺术家——第一代是1949年之前已经开始活动的艺术家；第二代是在50年代受到标准化苏联模式教育的艺术家；第三代可以统称为“红卫兵”一代，他们大都有着三年自然灾害的童年——如何对于这套新体制以及如何对于官方不断变化的政治要求做出回应。贯穿于这两条脉络之中的一条主线是中国绘画传统如何在官方的选择与政治的风波中被逐步改造，以让位于一种新的政治风格。

　　应该说，安雅兰的努力的确是卓有成效的，她没有局限于孤立地分析历史事件或政策方针对于美术现象的影响，而是以大量详实甚至有一些是连中国学者也难得一见的史料向西方读者阐明了中国美术在共和国头30年（甚至影响到现在）得以产生和运行的独特的行政机制。她特别强调正是在政治历史与这由一系列相关机构组成的行政机制的整体作用下，美术变成了后来的样子。

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　　然而，安女士虽然超越了单纯的审美视角，也注意到了讨论美术现象的范围和层次，但她所做的工作仍然只能说是美术史的内部研究，也就是说，她忽略了这套影响和控制美术的行政机构是在一个更大概念的限定下起作用的，这就是国家——中华人民共和国——一个近代意义上的民族国家，因此她的著作通常无法从更深的层面上解释共产党为什么要有意识地塑造出这样的艺术形象。安雅兰在书中也曾多次提及这个词，但她更多地是把它当作一个标签化的政治概念或者标志历史范畴的时间界限来使用，而几乎没有使这个词的内涵与她所要讨论的内容之间发生任何有启发意义的联系。事实上，共和国的建立，不仅意味着共产党的执政和社会主义制度的实行，而且从本质上属于整个世界近代民族国家独立进程的一部分。一旦对“民族国家”这个概念有所考察，我们便会对现在通行的国家概念有一个更为清醒的认识，共和国的建立对于新中国美术的政治影响也将从另一个层面更加突显出来。

　　从世界范围来看，国家的概念始终都是与一定的政治制度和意识形态相结合，而在不同的历史范畴中起作用。当代世界普遍采用的国家形式即是所谓的民族国家（尽管对民族国家的定义无法达成一致的共识，但谈到这个概念的时候，有几个基本内核是相对稳定的，如民主政体和独立主权，现今世界各地仍有许多人在为建立这样的国家而争斗），然而这样的国家概念决不是自古就有的。在西方，一般来说我们知道的最早的国家形式是自由城邦（如希腊城邦），然后逐渐形成统一王国（如马其顿王国），然后又出现了对外征服的庞大帝国（如罗马帝国、查理曼帝国），帝国崩溃后取而代之的是以民族和地域为标志的民族君主国（如盎格鲁-撒克逊王国、法兰西王国），当君主国的国王不再能保证本民族的利益，甚至为了私人目的而与它国相勾结的时候，民族主义与民主主义便以一种独特的方式结合在一起，从根本上促进了近代民族国家的形成（最典型的如法国大革命）。同时，这样一种国家形式的确立也被看作一个国家是否能够实现近代化转变进而获得充分发展的前提，因为它从政治制度和意识形态方面都将更有助于确保新的生产关系的形成以及维护这个国家中大多数成员的基本权利。这时，国家就不再是某个人或某个家族的国家，而是对于这个国家具有认同感和归属感的“人民”的国家，“人民”有权力为保障自身的利益而参与国家政权的建设和管理，因此西方民族国家在形成的过程中就自然地与民主的概念紧密联系在一起。

　　然而当19世纪后半期民族国家的意识在中国出现的时候，它所遇到的情况要比在西方时更为特殊。首先19世纪的中国仍然是一个庞大的封建制帝国，虽然这个帝国的统治者是满族人，社会上也无可避免地存在有不同程度的民族矛盾，但总体而言，这些矛盾还是传统国家意识形态下的民族矛盾，从本质上讲这个帝国仍旧是与中国历代帝制一脉相承的，也就是说它对于以往的国家文化是持认可态度的，而且还把自己看作是这一文化的继承者，并以此作为强化统治大多数认同于此文化的民众的保证（这种保证是由科举制——仍以儒家文化为主体——等一系列政治制度实现的）。比如雍正就在《大义觉迷录》一书中强调“华夷”无别，认为舜是东夷人，文王是西夷人，自己虽是满人，却和舜、文王一样，完全可以合法地成为中国的皇帝。很早就有西方学者深入分析过，在传统社会里，中国人对于国家的认同是文化主义的而非民族主义的，也就是说中国人把最高的忠诚给予了文化而非国家 。同时，梁启超也说中国人有深厚的文化主义，而无欧洲人那样的民族主义，中国人视中国为世界而非国家 。与此同时，清代的中国人也或多或少地接触到了一些不同于自身的西方近代文化，对于世界知识的了解也比以前有所增加。然而若谈到对待这些新知识的态度，大多数国人则怀有一种毋庸质疑的优越感。直到1840年以后在同西方世界的一系列直接较量中败下阵来（包括后来又在1894-1895的甲午海战中输给了自己的邻国日本），中国人才开始自觉地警省自身的问题，并实施了各种具体的努力。从改良技术设备的洋务运动，到推行君主立宪的康梁变法，从“反清灭洋”的义和团起义，到推翻帝制的建立民国的辛亥革命，应该说，近代中国的民族主义和民主主义主要是随着受到强势文化的挑战以及面临国家主权的危机而逐渐突显出来的，而不是像西方那样，相对来说是在具有普遍全民意识和明确政治要求的基础上自然形成的。

　　同时，严峻的外部环境对于中国民族国家的形成也起着阻碍而不是促进作用，当中国人开始进行民族国家建设的时候，中国已经沦为了西方列强的半殖民地。逐渐地，民族矛盾上升为主要矛盾，主权问题变成了首要问题，中国的民主主义（democracy）也就进而在危机之中被强化为一种国家主义（statism）。然而自清帝国灭亡后，中国的大多数老百姓对于要建立维护本民族多数人而非少数人私有的政治意义上的民族国家的概念仍是相当模糊的，中国社会依旧如同一片散沙。孙中山先生在经历几次复辟的挫折后明确提出要想有效地发挥政权的作用必须“以党建国”。于是，中国的国家主义又特别与不同政党而非一般民众对于国家政权的构想结合在一起。五四运动后，中国大陆存留下来的两套建国方案分属国民党和共产党，抗战结束，调动了占中国绝大多数人口阶层（农民、工人）积极性的共产党最终取代了国民党的民国政府，完成了统一民族国家的建立。

　　正如上文所提到的，在中国民族国家的形成过程中，国家与党是先于人民的两个概念。由党领导组建一个强有力的国家而非民主成了中国现代性的必要条件。一旦取得民族主权，建立了国家，党就要从政治制度和意识形态方面逐步培养出人民对于这样一个国家的民族认同感，也就是说要用全新的意识形态来构建人民的国家意识，并用一套相匹配的政治制度加以保证。带着这种思路来观察建国后的一系列政策和新中国的教育、宣传、艺术等文化现象，我们就会想知道在这样一种国家形态下，人们在各个领域（包括美术方面）是如何叙述国家与人民的关系、国家与党的关系、党与人民的关系、人民与敌人的关系、人民与民主的关系等等一系列与民族国家发生关联的概念，如果对它们一一有所考察，我们就会比较清醒地认识到党是在如何有意识地全面塑造一种全新的国家文化，而不仅仅是单纯地使中国美术发生了变化。

　　带着民族国家的视角来看安雅兰的文章，就难免觉得她的有些解释会比较表面化。比如她解释为什么改革派与学院派的主张及艺术实践会在20世纪后半期实际控制了关于传统文化的争论时说：他们获胜的原因很简单，因为这两派中都有人在共产党领导下的艺术机构里担任要职 。其实，安女士的回答仍然只是对于事实的描述，而没能回答出为什么共产党最终会选择这两派的主张。同样，对于绘画题材、语言方式等方面的转化，除了增加事实层面的知识外，我们从这本书中也很难再获得更深入的对于这段历史的认识。

　　之所以存在诸如此类的问题恐怕还得归因于安雅兰最初的写作目的，即在受到极大的触动后，希望尽可能了解事实以告知读者这30年里中国美术界的情况，进而阐明美术形式发生变化的原因。首先，安雅兰主要是从形式角度出发来考虑美术范围内的问题（比如传统画风的衰落），由于这一段的美术史特别与政治史重迭，所以作者在进行阐释的框架中引入了一种政治结构，这种结构最终又与美术史的细节结合在一起，用以解释美术发生变化的机制。的确，美术史的研究已经越来越倾向于认为单纯的风格和审美视角不足以帮助我们全面理解所遇到的问题，我们需要结合政治史、经济史等多方面的考察来增加已有的认识。但政治除了制度、政策、事件这些具体的形式之外还包含它背后的意图等更深层的意义，而且它与美术等其它文化的相互作用也存在更为复杂的联系。

　　另外，在选择这样做之前，安雅兰心里必定还有这样一个预设前提，即历史是可以通过努力得以还原的。如果把发生过的事情当作一个不再增加任何新内容的物件，那么我们很容易认为它是固定的，是可以通过我们的努力找到答案的，至少是可以最大限度地接近于“历史的真实”的。这也正是传统史学的做法。然而过去的事情即使离我们再近也毕竟只能成为过去，我们终究无法使历史在我们眼前重演一遍，而且单纯的历史知识其实并不能增加多少我们对历史的认识，现代人所能建构的永远都不是历史本身，而是我们与过去之间的某种关系。如果我们换一种思路，不是以求得历史真实为己任，而是主动地在历史研究中引入一种当代的文化视角，而这种视角又能把发生在政治、社会、经济、文化等领域内的表层现象联系在一起，那么历史中一系列与这一视角有关的问题就会显现出来，对于它们的具体考察既可以增加我们对于过去的认识又能够加深我们对于现在的了解。我在对安女士文章的评论中引入的是民族国家的视角，如果换了另外一种视角，那么另一系列问题又会冒出头来。这些视角其实不是被泛滥使用的术语或者僵化呆板的概念，它们是一些活跃的工具，把过去和现在紧密联系在一起，从而在总体上增加了当代人对于这个世界的知识。

安雅兰著作目录

编纂物和展览图录：

Literature in Line: Lianhuanhua from China, with Kuiyi Shen, exhibition catalogue, Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University Cartoon Research Library, forthcoming.

The Challenge of Modernity: Chinese Painting of the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries, edited volume, with Kuiyi Shen. Hangzhou: China National Academy of Arts Press, forthcoming.

Special issue on Twentieth Century Chinese Visual Culture, edited volume, with Xiaomei Chen, for Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, fall, 2000.

已出版的书籍与展览图录：

A Century in Crisis: Tradition and Modernity in the Art of Twentieth Century China, with Kuiyi Shen, exhibition catalogue, New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, 1998, 329 pp. Also published in Spanish translation as Un siglo en crisis: Modernidad y tradición en el arte de la China del siglo XX, Bilbao, Spain: Guggenheim Bilbao, 1998.

Painters and Politics in the People's Republic of China, 1949-1979, Berkeley: University of California Press in Association with the Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1994, 568 pp. (Winner of the 1996 Joseph Levenson Prize for Twentieth Century China)

Fragmented Memory: The Chinese Avant-Garde in Exile, with Gao Minglu (exhibition catalogue, July 31-October 10, 1993), Wexner Center for the Arts, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

收录于其他书籍中的文章：

"The Ideology of Consumption: Chinese Lifestyle Magazines in the 1990s," co-authored with Kuiyi Shen, in Popular Thought in Post-Socialist China, eds. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, Paul Pickowitz (Lanham, Boulder, New York, Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.), forthcoming in 2000.

"The Traditionalist Response to Modernity: The Chinese Painting Society of Shanghai," Julia F. Andrews and Kuiyi Shen," in Visual Culture in Shanghai, 1850s-1930s", ed. Jason C. Kuo, Seattle: University of Washington Press, forthcoming in 2001.

"Reflections on the Study of Chinese Painting," for a forthcoming anthology on the history of the field, ed. Jason C. Kuo, University Press of Maryland, forthcoming in 2001.

"‘The Traitor to Art’ and Chinese Modernity: Liu Haisu and the Nude Model Controversy," in Images in Exchange, Richard Vinograd, ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press) , forthcoming.

"Literature in Line: Picture Stories in the People’s Republic of China," in Literature in Line: Lianhuanhua from China, with Kuiyi Shen, exhibition catalogue, (Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University Cartoon Research Library), forthcoming.

"White Cat, Black Cat: Chinese Art and the Politics of Deng Xiaoping," in Word and Meaning: Six Contemporary Chinese Artists, Kuiyi Shen, et al (Buffalo: State University of New York at Buffalo, Research Center in Art + Culture, 2000), pp. 19-29.

"A Shelter from the Storm: Chinese Painting in a Cataclysmic Age (1930-1980)," in Between the Thunder and the Rain: Chinese Paintings from the Opium War to the Cultural Revolution, 1840-1979 (San Francisco: Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, 2000), pp. 169-197. Consulting curator.

"The Shock of the New: Li Huayi, Zhang Hong, and the Reordered Landscape," with Kuiyi Shen, Kaikodo Journal, November, 1999, pp. 11-25.

"Chao Chun-hsiang and New York," in Chao Chung-hsiang (Zhao Chunxiang), exhibition curated by Alice King (Hangzhou, Zhejiang West Lake Museum; Hong Kong Arts Centre, 1999), pp. 35-38.

"Traditionalism as a Modern Stance: The Chinese Women’s Calligraphy and Painting Society of 1930s Shanghai," with Kuiyi Shen, Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, vol. 11, no. 1 (spring, 1999), pp. 1-29.

"Transformation of Tradition: Chinese Art from 1980 to the Present," by Shen Kuiyi and Julia Andrews (in Chinese), in Proceedings of the International Symposium in Conjunction with the Second Shanghai Biennial, Shanghai: Shanghai Art Museum, forthcoming (October 19-22, 1998).

"Let the Past Serve the Present: Modern Chinese Art and Its Histories," Orientations, Feb. 1998, pp. 62-70.

"Zhongguo nüzi shuhua hui (Revised Chinese version of 'The Chinese Women's Calligraphy and Painting Society’),"with Kuiyi Shen, Duoyun (Shanghai), vol. 47 (Dec. 1997).
"Literature in Line: Picture Stories in the People’s Republic of China," Inks: Cartoon and Comic Art Studies, vol. 4, no. 3 (Nov. 1997), pp. 17-32.

"Traditional Chinese Painting in an Age of Revolution, 1911-1937: The Chinese Painting Society of Shanghai," in conference volume, Chinese Painting and the Twentieth Century: Creativity in the Aftermath of Tradition (Hangzhou: Zhejiang People’s Fine Arts Press, 1997), pp. 578-595.

"Contemporary Chinese Art and the World Outside,China Exchange News: A Review of Education, Science, and Academic Relations with the PRC, vol. 23, no. 3 (fall, 1995), pp. 20-24.

"The Chinese Avant-garde's Challenge to Official Art," co-authored with Gao Minglu, in Urban Space and City Living in China, ed. Deborah Davis, Elizabeth Perry, Barry Naughton, and Richard Kraus, Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 221-278.

"Traditional Painting in New China: Guohua and the Anti-Rightist Campaign," Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 49, no. 3 (Aug.1990), pp. 555-585.

"Wang Yani and Contemporary Chinese Painting," in Waiching Ho, ed. Yani: The Brush of Innocence, New York: Hudson Hills Press and Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, 1989, pp. 39-50.

"Zhongguo yishu zai meiguo de jingyu [The Situation of Chinese Art in America]," Meishu [Art], 1989, no. 1, pp. 61-63.

"Zhongguo meishu yu meiguo shichang [Chinese Art and the American Art Market], Part I," Zhongguo meishu bao [Fine arts in China], 1988, no. 49, p.2.

"The Peasant's Pen: Some Thoughts on Realism in Modern Chinese Art," Search, Research, and Discovery In the Arts, The Ohio State University College of the Arts, Autumn, 1987, pp. 6-9.

Coauthor and translator, "Catalogue of the Exhibition," pp. 95-154; translator for Wang Renbo, "General Comments on Chinese Funerary Sculpture," pp.39-61 Quest for Eternity: Chinese Ceramic Sculptures from the People's Republic of China, Los Angeles and San Francisco, 1987.

"Zha Shibiao" and, with H. Yoshida, "Theoretical Foundations of the Anhui School", in James Cahill, ed. The Shadows of Mount Huang: Painting and Printing of the Anhui School, Berkeley, 1981.

最近的研讨会：

Chinese Figure Painting
这项奖金由Merlin基金会提供，每年由AAS的中国和内亚委员会(CIAC)颁发给极大增加了人们对于中国的历史、文化、社会、政治和经济了解的用英语写作的学术性书籍。Joseph Levenson是与费正清齐名的对于中国近代史研究有杰出贡献的历史学家。

80年代以前海外学者研究近百年中国史较为重要的著作有：

Michael Sullivan （苏立文）, Chinese Art in The Twentieth Century，London: Faber and Faber, 1959

Kao, Mayching.（高美庆）， China's Response to the West in Art. Ph.D. diss， Stanford University，1972.

Chu-tsing Li（李铸晋），Trends in Modern Chinese Painting (The CA Drenowatz Collection) (Ascona, 1979)

80年代之后的研究进展请参见洪再新先生对海外学者研究近百年中国史状况的综述，本文最后也将附录研究文献目录。

安雅兰之前讨论新中国美术的主要研究成果有：

Chang, Arnold（张宏），Painting in the People's Republic of China: The Politics of Style，Boulder: Westview Press, 1980.

Cohen, Joan Lebold， The New Chinese Painting, 1949-1986，New York: Abrams, 1987.

Laing, Ellen Johnston（梁庄艾伦），The Winking Owl: Art in the People's Republic of China，Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.

比如口述人对于事实有意无意的选择以及对于历史记忆或多或少的遗忘。

James Harrison ，Modern Chinese Nationalism (Hunter College of the City of New York ，Research Institute on Modern Asia，New York，1996)另外，对这种区分的综述性讨论详见于James Townsend ，“Chinese Nationalism” ，in Jonathan Unger ，(ed)， Chinese Nationalism(Armonk NY. :M.E.Sharpe 1996) pp.1-30

梁启超，新民说，《饮冰室文集》，香港：天行出版社，1974

本文中关于民族国家的知识主要来源于：郑永年，《中国民族主义和自由主义研究》（提纲），该文章收录于《公共理性与现代学术》，北京三联，2000

附：中国近现代美术史研究著作目录（来源：http://www.asiasociety.org/arts/insideout/bibliography.html）
Works in English | Works in Chinese| Exhibition Catalogues

Abbas, Akbar. "Hong Kong: Other Histories, Other Politics." Public Culture 9, no. 3 (Spring 1997), pp. 293-313.

Anagnost, Ann. "Cultural Nationalism and Chinese Modernity." In Cultural Nationalism in East Asia: Representation and Identity, ed. Harumi Befu. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.

Andrews, Julia F. Painters and Politics in the People's Republic of China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.

Andrews, Julia F., and Gao Minglu. "The Avant-Garde's Challenge to Official Art." In Urban Spaces: Autonomy and Community in Contemporary China, ed. Deborah Davis et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 221-78.

"Art of the Chinese Diaspora." Special issue of Art and AsiaPacific 1, no. 2 (1994).

Barmé, Geremie. "The Chinese Velvet Prison: Culture in the 'New Age,' 1976-1989." Issues and Studies 25, no. 8 (1989), pp. 42-62.

_____. "To Screw Foreigners Is Patriotic: China's Avant-Garde Nationalists." China Journal, no. 34 (July 1995), pp. 209-34.

Barmé, Geremie, ed. Shades of Mao: The Posthumous Cult of the Great Leader. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1996.

Berry, Chris, ed. Perspectives on Chinese Cinema. London: BFI, 1991.

Chan, Lauk'ung. "Ten Years of the Chinese Avantgarde: Waiting for the Curtain to Fall." Flash Art 25 (January-February 1992), pp. 110-14.

Chan, Sylvia. "The Blooming of a 'Hundred Flowers' and the Literature of the 'Wounded Generation.'" In China Since the "Gang of Four," ed. B. Brugger. London: Croom Helm, 1980, pp. 174-201.

Chang, Arnold. Painting in the People's Republic of China: The Politics of Style. Boulder: Westview Press, 1980.

Clark, John. "Problems of Modernity in Chinese Painting." Oriental Art 32 (Autumn1986), pp. 270-83.

"Taiwanese Painting Under the Japanese Occupation." Journal of Oriental Studies 25, no. 1 (1987), pp. 63-104.

"Postmodernism and Recent Expressionist Chinese Oil Painting." Asian Studies Review 15, no. 2 (November 1991).

Clarke, David. Art & Place: Essays on Art from a Hong Kong Perspective. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1996.

"Varieties of Cultural Hybridity: Hong Kong Art in the Late Colonial Era." Public Culture 9, no. 3 (Spring 1997), pp. 395-415.

Clunas, Craig. Art in China. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Cohen, Joan Lebold. The New Chinese Painting, 1949-1986. New York: Abrams, 1987.

Cohen, Myron. "Cultural and Political Inventions in Modern China: The Case of the Chinese 'Peasant.'" Daedalus 122, no. 2 (1993), pp. 151-70.

Croizier, Ralph. Art and Revolution in Modern China: The Lingnan (Cantonese) School of Painting, 1906-1951. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.

"Art and Society in Modern China: A Review Article." Journal of Asian Studies 49, no. 3 (August 1990), pp. 587-602.

Dai Jinhua. "Redemption and Consumption: Depicting Culture in the 1990s." Positions 4, no. 1 (1996), pp. 127-43.

Dijk, Hans van. "Painting in China After the Cultural Revolution: Style Developments and Theoretical Debates, Part II: 1985-1991." China Information 6, no. 4 (Spring 1992), pp. 1-18.

Fu Shen. Challenging the Past: The Paintings of Chang Dai-chien. Washington, D.C.: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, 1991.

Gao Minglu. "From the Local Context to the International Context: An Essay on the Critique of Art and Culture." In The First Academic Exhibition of Chinese Contemporary Art 96-97 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Arts Centre, 1996), pp. 23-29 (also in Chinese).

Gladney, Dru C. "Representing Nationality in China: Refiguring Majority/Minority Identities." Journal of Asian Studies 53, no. 1 (February 1994), pp. 92-123.

Goldman, Merle. China's Intellectuals: Advice and Dissent. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981.

Goldman, Merle, Timothy Cheek, and Carol Lee Hamrin, eds. China's Intellectuals and the State. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987.

Hay, Jonathan. "Ambivalent Icons: Works by Five Chinese Artists Based in the United States." Orientations 23, no. 7 (July 1992), pp. 37-43.

Hinterthur, Petra. Modern Art in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Myer Publishing Co., 1985.

Holm, David. Art and Ideology in Prerevolutionary China. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.

Hou Hanru. "Beyond the Cynical." Art and Asia Pacific 3, no. 1 (1996).
_____. "Towards an 'Un-Unofficial Art': De-ideologicalisation of China's Contemporary Art in the 1990s." Third Text, no. 34 (Spring 1996), pp. 37-52.

Hua Junwu, ed. Contemporary Chinese Painting. Beijing: New York Press, 1984.

Jose, Nicholas. "New Wave Art." New Asia Review (Summer 1994), pp. 18-24.

Kao, Mayching. "China's Response to the West in Art." Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1972.

_____. Twentieth-Century Chinese Painting. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Kraus, Richard. "China's Cultural 'Liberalization' and Conflict Over the Social Organization of the Arts." Modern China 9, no. 2 (April 1983), pp. 212-27.

_____. "Art Policies of the Cultural Revolution." In New Perspectives on the Cultural Revolution, ed. Christine Wong et al. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Council on East Asian Studies, 1991.

_____. Brushes with Power: Modern Politics and Chinese Art of Calligraphy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.

_____. "China's Artists Between Plan and Market." In Urban Spaces: Autonomy and Community in Contemporary China, ed. Deborah Davis et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Laing, Ellen Johnston. "Chinese Peasant Painting, 1958-1976: Amateur and Professional." Art International 27, no. 1 (January-March 1984), pp. 1-12.

_____. The Winking Owl: Art in the People's Republic of China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.

_____. "Is There Post-Modern Art in the People's Republic of China?" In Modernity in Asian Art, ed. John Clark. Sydney: Wild Peony, 1993, pp. 207-21.

Lee, Benjamin. "Going Public." Public Culture 5 (1993), pp. 165-78 [on Xu Bing].

Lee, Leo Ou-fan. "Two Films from Hong Kong: Parody and Allegory." In New ChineseCinemas: Forms, Identities, Politics, ed. Nick Browne et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 202-15.

"Tales from the 'Floating City.'" Harvard Asia Pacific Review (Winter 1996-97), pp. 43-49.

"Trans-Chinese: Notes on Language and Sensibility." Venue 1 (Fall 1997), pp. 160-72.

Lin Xiaoping. "Those Parodic Images: A Glimpse of Contemporary Chinese Art." Leonardo 30, no. 2 (1997), pp. 113-22.

Link, Perry, Richard Madsen, and Paul Pickowicz, eds. Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic. Boulder: Westview Press, 1989.

Lu, Sheldon Hsaio-peng. "Postmodernity, Popular Culture, and the Intellectual: A Report on Post-Tiananmen China." boundary 2 23, no. 2 (1996), pp. 139-69.

"Art, Culture, and Cultural Criticism in Post-New China." New Literary History 28 (1997), pp. 111-33.

Lu, Victoria. "The Rising New Moon: Contemporary Art in Taiwan since 1945." Art and Asia Pacific (September, 1993), pp. 40-46.

Lufkin, Felicity. Images of Minorities in the Art of the People's Republic of China. Master's thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1990.

MacRitchie, Lynn. "Precarious Paths on the Mainland." Art in America 82 (March 1994), pp. 51-53.

McIntyre, Sophie. "Made in Taiwan." Art and Asia Pacific 3, no. 3 (1996), pp. 83-86.

Raddock, David M. "Beyond Mao and Tiananmen: China's Emerging Avant-Garde." New Art Examiner (February-March 1995).

Schell, Orville. "Chairman Mao as Pop Art." In The Mandate of Heaven (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), pp. 279-92.

Silbergeld, Jerome, with Gong Jisui. Contradictions: Artistic Life, the Socialist State, and the Chinese Painter Li Huasheng. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1993.

Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China. London: Hutchinson, 1990.

Sullivan, Michael. The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art. Rev. and exp. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.

Art and Artists of Twentieth-Century China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.

Sun, Shirley. "Lu Xun and the Chinese Woodcut Movement, 1929-1935." Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1974.

Taylor, Janelle S. "Non-Sense in Context: Xu Bing's Art and Its Publics." Public Culture 5 (1993), pp. 317-27.

Tsao Tsing-yuan. "The Birth of the Goddess of Democracy." In Popular Protest and Political Culture in China, ed. Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom and Elizabeth J. Perry. Boulder: Westview Press, 1994, pp. 140-47.

Wang, Chia Chi Jason. "Made in Taiwan." Art and Asia Pacific 1, no. 2 (1994), pp. 73-77.

Wang, Yuejin. "Anxiety of Portraiture: Quest for/Questioning Ancestral Icons in Post-Mao China." In Politics, Ideology, and Literary Discourse in Modern China, ed. Liu Kang and Xiaobing Tang (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993)..

Wu, Lawrence. "Kang Youwei and the Westernization of Modern Chinese Art." Orientations 21, no. 3 (March 1990), pp. 46-53.

Yen Chuan-ying. "The Art Movement in the 1930s in Taiwan." In Modernity in Asian Art, ed. John Clark. Sydney: Wild Peony, 1993, pp. 45-59.

Yorke, A. "The Role of the Artist in Contemporary China: Tradition and Modern Attitudes to Art Appreciation." Journal of the Oriental Society of Australia 20-21 (1988-89).

Zha Jianying. China Pop. New York: New Press, 1995.

Works in Chinese | Works in English | Exhibition Catalogues

Yishujia ,Taiwan meishu (Artist,Taiwanese Art: Survey, 1975-1995), ed. Ni Tsai-chin. Taipei: Artist Magazine, 1995.

Cai Yuanpei. Meiyu lunji (Art Education). Changsha: Hunan Educational Press, 1987.

Chen Yingde. Haiwai kan dalu yishu (Mainland Art Abroad). Taipei: Art Publishers, 1987.

Gao Minglu. "Bawu meishu yundong ('85 Art Movement)." Meishujia tongxun (Artists' Journal) 1986.3 (June 1986), pp. 15-23.

"Meishu, quanli, gongfan: Zhengzhi popu xianxiang" (Kitsch, Power, and Complicity: The Political Pop Phenomenon). Xiongshi Meishu (Lion Art) 297 (November 1995), pp. 36-57.

Gao Minglu et al. Zhongguo dangdai meishushi, 1985-1986 (History of Chinese Contemporary Art, 1985-1986). Shanghai: Shanghai People's Press, 1991.

Ho Huai-shuo, ed. Jindai Zhongguo meishu lunji (Essays on Modern Chinese Art). Vols. 1-6. Taipei: Artists Press, 1991.

Hsiao Ch'iung-jui. "Zhanhou Taiwan meishu dashiji" (A Chronology of Postwar Taiwanese Art). Yanhuang Yishu (Yanhuang Art) 10-19 (1990-1991).

Taiwan meishushi yanjiu lunji (Studies in Taiwanese Art History). Taipei: Tung Da Publishing, 1991.

Wuyue yu dongfang--Zhongguo meishu xiandaihua yundong ziazhanhou Taiwan zhi fazhan, 1945-1970 (The Fifth Moon and Eastern Painting Groups: Chinese Modern Art Movements in Postwar Taiwan, 1945-1970). Taipei: Dongda Press, 1991.

Hsieh Li-fa. "Sanshi niandai Shanghai, Dongjing, Taibei de meishu guanxi" (Artistic Links Between Shanghai, Tokyo, and Taipei during the 1930s). Xiongshi Meishu (Lion Art) 160 (1984).

Riju shidai Taiwan meishu yundong shi (The Taiwanese Art Movement during the Japanese Occupation). 3d ed. Taipei, 1992.

Jaoyubu dierci quanguo meishu zhanlianhui zhuanji (Second National Art Exhibition of the Ministry of Education), vol. 2, Xiandai shuhuaji (Modern Calligraphy and Painting); vol. 3, Xiandai xihua tu'an diaokeji (Western Painting, Design, and Sculpture). Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1937.

Kao Chien-hui. Dangdai wenhuayishu sexiang (Fine Art: Unorthodox Visual Culture in the 1990s). Taipei: Artists Press, 1996.

Kuo, Jackson, ed. Taiwan shijue wenhua (Taiwanese Visual Culture). Taipei: Artists Press, 1995.

Lang Shaojun. Lun Zhongguo xiandai meishu (Chinese Modern Art). Nanjing: Jiangsu Art Press, 1988.

Li Hua, Li Shusheng, and Ma Ke, eds. Zhongguo xinxing banhua wushi nian (Fifty Years of the New Chinese Print Movement). Shenyang: Liaoning Art Press, 1981.

Li Song. Xu Beihung nianpu (A Biography of Xu Beihung). Beijing: People's Art Press, 1985.

Li Xianting. "Zhengzhi popu he wanshi xianshizhuyi" (Political Pop and Cynical Realism). Meishu Xinchao (New Wave Art), no. 1 (1993).

Lin Hsing-yueh. Taiwan meishu fengyun sishi nian (Forty Years of Taiwanese Art). Taipei: Independence Evening News Publication, 1987.

_____. "Jushi niandai bentu qianweiyishu de zhanwang" (Prospects of Native [Taiwanese] Avant-Garde Art in the 1990s). Xiongshi Meishu (Lion Art) 256 (1992), pp. 40-69.

Liu Ching-fu. "Xiandaizhuyi de shiyanqi." In Taiwan meishu xinfengmao (Taiwan Art, 1945-1993), ed. Lin Ping. Taipei: Taipei Fine Arts Museum, 1993, pp. 24-28.

Liushi nian wenyi dashiji, 1919-1979 (A Record of Sixty Years of Major Events in Literature and Art), ed. Drafting Committee for the Fourth Congress of Literary and Art Works. Beijing: Theory and Policy Research Center, Ministry of Culture, Literature, and Art Research Institute, 1979.

Liu Xilin. Yihai chunqiu: Jiang Zhaohe zhuan (Spring and Autumn in the Sea of Art: A Biography of Jiang Zhaohe). Shanghai: Shanghai Calligraphy and Painting Press, 1984.

Lu Peng and Yi Dan. Zhongguo xiandai yishu shi, 1979-1989 (A History of Chinese Modern Art, 1979-1989). Changsha: Hunan Art Press, 1992.

Lu, Victoria. "Zhongguo nuxing Yishudi Fazhan yu gimeng" (The Development of Chinese Feminist Art). Yishujia (Artist) 231 (1993).

"Tanxun Taiwan bashi niandai yishu fengge" (A Study of Taiwanese Art Styles in the 1980s). In Taiwan shijue wenhua (Taiwanese Visual Culture), ed. Jackson Kuo. Taipei: Artists Press, 1995), pp. 210-15.

Meishu (Art Monthly). Beijing: Chinese Artists Association, 1952-.

Meishu Sichao (Art Trends). Hubei: Hubei Artists Association, 1985-.

Meishu Xinchao (New Wave Art). Taipei, 1993-95.

Ni Tsai-chin. "Xifangmeishu Taiwanzhizao" (Western Art, Made in Taiwan). Xiongshi Meishu (Lion Art) 242 (1991), pp. 114-33.

"Zhongguo shuimo, Taiwan quwei" (Chinese Ink, Taiwanese Taste). Xiongshi Meishu (Lion Art) 244 (1991), pp. 150-59.

"Taiwanmeishu zhongde Taiwanyishi" (Taiwanese Identity in Taiwanese Art). Xiongshi Meishu (Lion Art) 249 (1991), 136-57.

Pai Hsüeh-lan. "Taiwan zaoqi xiyang meishu zuopin zhan" (Early Exhibitions of Western-style Art in Taiwan). Xiongshi Meishu (Lion Art) 228 (1990), pp. 113-19.

Ruan Rongsheng and Hu Guanghu. Zhonghua minguo huihua shi (The History of Art in the Republic of China). Chengdu, 1991.

Tao Yongbai. Zhongguo yuohua, 1700-1985 (Chinese Oil Painting, 1700-1985). Nanjing: Jiangsu Art Press, 1988.

Wang Hsiu-hsiung. "Taiwan diyidai xihuajia de baoshou yu quanweizhuyi ji duizhanhou Taiwanxihua de yixiang" (The Conservatism and Authority of Taiwan's First Generation of Painters and Their Influence on Postwar Western-Style Painting in Taiwan). In Zhongguo, xiandai, meishu (China, Modernity, Art). Taipei: Taipei Fine Arts Museum, 1990, pp. 137-74.

Wu Pu. "Menghun suoji de tudi: Fang Guangfuchu zeng dao Taiwan de jiwei dalu huajia" (Visits to Some Mainland Artists Who Emigrated
to Taiwan in the late 1940s). Xiongshi Meishu (Lion Art) 221 (1989),
pp. 60-76.

Xiongshi Meishu (Lion Art) 297 (November 1995). Special commemorative issue on the '85 Movement.

Yen Chüan-ying. "Taiwan zaoqi xiyiangmeishu de fazhan" (The Development of Early Taiwanese Western-Style Art). Yishujia (Artist) 168-170 (1989).

Yishujia (Artist). Taipei, 1975-.

Zhang Shaoxia and Li Xiaoshan. Zhongguo xiandai huihua shi (History of Modern Chinese Painting). Nanjing: Jiangsu Art Press, 1987.

Zhongguo Meishu Bao (Chinese Art). Beijing: Central Academy of Fine Arts, 1985-.

Zhongguo, xiandai, meishu (China, Modernity, Art). Taipei: Taipei Fine Arts Museum, 1990.

Zhu Boxuong. "Juelanshe xiaoshi" (A Brief History of the Juelan Association). Meishujia 31, pp. 23-25.

Zhu Boxuong and Chen Ruilin. Zhongguo xihua wushi nian (Fifty Years of Western Painting in China). Beijing, 1989.

Zhu Pu. Lin Fengmian. Shanghai: Shanghai Art Press, 1988.

Exhibition Catalogues | Works in English | Works in Chinese

Against the Tide. New York: Bronx Museum of the Arts, 1997.

Andrews, Julia F., and Gao Minglu. Fragmented Memory: The Chinese Avant-Garde in Exile. Columbus: Wexner Center for the Arts, Ohio State University, 1993.

Another Long March: Chinese Conceptual and Installation Art in the Nineties. Breda: Fundament Foundation, 1997.

ArtTaiwan: Biennale di Venezia 1995. Taipei: Taipei Fine Arts Museum, 1995.

Cai Guo Qiang: Flying Dragon in the Heavens. Humlebaek, Denmark: Louisana Museum, 1997.

Cai Guo Qiang: From the Pan-Pacific. Iwaki City: Art Museum, 1994.

Chang Tsong-zung. Man and Earth: Contemporary Paintings from Taiwan. Denver: Asian Art Coordinating Council, 1994.

Chang Tsong-zung et al. Quotation Marks: Contemporary Chinese Paintings. Singapore: Singapore Art Museum, 1997.

China's New Art, Post-1989. Hong Kong: Hanart T Z Gallery, 1993.

China: Zeitgen?ssische Malerei. Bonn: Kunstmuseums, 1996.

Chu-goku gendai bijustsu '97/Chinese Contemporary Art 1997. Tokyo: Watari Museum of Contemporary Art, 1997.

Configura 2: Dialog der Kulturen. Erfurt: Configura-Projekt, 1995.

Contemporary Chinese Painting: An Exhibition from the People's Republic of China. San Francisco: Chinese Culture Foundation of San Francisco, 1983.

Des del País del Centre: Avantguardes artístiques xineses. Barcelona: Centre d'Art Santa Mónica, 1995.

Dushi zhongde siran: Renwen yu wuzhi de duehua (Urban Nature: A Dialogue between Humanism and Materialism). Taipei: The Empire Art Educational Foundation, 1994.

The First Academic Exhibition of Chinese Contemporary Art 96-97. Hong Kong: China Oil Painting Gallery Limited, 1996.